Updated november 9, 2017 refresh your cache to view recent updates ctrlf5 ctrl or cmdshiftr new download links are being installed for some items listed below. Oxford Macmillan Education, 2010. Discover China это четырехуровневый курс китайского языка для учащихся. The recent success of books on economic history at a time when this specialism often seems disregarded in universities coupled with parallel. Strengths and Weaknesses of the United Nations How to Make it a More Effective International Organization Nikolas Eristavi Term Paper Politics International. The True Origin of Easter by David C. Pack Easter is a worldwide tradition involving many customs that people believe to be Christian. What is the origin of Lent and. The Rise Of Modern China Epub To Mobi' title='The Rise Of Modern China Epub To Mobi' />What is Transhumanism The human desire to acquire posthuman attributes is as ancient as the human species itself. Humans have always sought to expand the boundaries of their existence, be it ecologically, geographically, or mentally. There is a tendency in at least some individuals always to try to find a way around every limitation and obstacle. The Rise Of Modern China Epub To Mobi' title='The Rise Of Modern China Epub To Mobi' />Ceremonial burial and preserved fragments of religious writings show that prehistoric humans were deeply disturbed by the death of their loved ones and sought to reduce the cognitive dissonance by postulating an afterlife. Yet, despite the idea of an afterlife, people still endeavored to extend life. In the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh approx. B. C., a king embarks on a quest to find an herb that can make him immortal. The following is a comparison of ebook formats used to create and publish ebooks. The EPUB format is the most widely supported vendorindependent XMLbased as. The solar eclipse is rapidly approaching and, for the towns that happen to be in the narrow 70mile band of best observation, this means gearing up for quite the. Purchase Thiamine Deficiency Disease, Dysautonomia, and High Calorie Malnutrition 1st Edition. Print Book EBook. ISBN 9780128103876, 9780128103883. Red-fiSoL.jpg' alt='The Rise Of Modern China Epub To Mobi' title='The Rise Of Modern China Epub To Mobi' />Its worth noting that it was assumed both that mortality was not inescapable in principle, and that there existed at least mythological means of overcoming it. That people really strove to live longer and richer lives can also be seen in the development of systems of magic and alchemy lacking scientific means of producing an elixir of life, one resorted to magical means. This strategy was adopted, for example, by the various schools of esoteric Taoism in China, which sought physical immortality and control over or harmony with the forces of nature. The Greeks were ambivalent about humans transgressing our natural confines. On the one hand, they were fascinated by the idea. We see it in the myth of Prometheus, who stole the fire from Zeus and gave it to the humans, thereby permanently improving the human condition. And in the myth of Daedalus, the gods are repeatedly challenged, quite successfully, by a clever engineer and artist, who uses non magical means to extend human capabilities. On the other hand, there is also the concept of hubris that some ambitions are off limit and would backfire if pursued. In the end, Daedalus enterprise ends in disaster not, however, because it was punished by the gods but owing entirely to natural causes. Greek philosophers made the first, stumbling attempts to create systems of thought that were based not purely on faith but on logical reasoning. Socrates and the sophists extended the application of critical thinking from metaphysics and cosmology to include the study of ethics and questions about human society and human psychology. Out of this inquiry arose cultural humanism, a very important current throughout the history of Western science, political theory, ethics, and law. In the Renaissance, human thinking was awoken from medieval otherworldliness and the scholastic modes of reasoning that had predominated for a millennium, and the human being and the natural world again became legitimate objects of study. Renaissance humanism encouraged people to rely on their own observations and their own judgment rather than to defer in every matter to religious authorities. Renaissance humanism also created the ideal of the well rounded personality, one that is highly developed scientifically, morally, culturally, and spiritually. A milestone is Giovanni Pico della Mirandolas Oration on the Dignity of Man 1. And crucially, modern science began to take form then, through the works of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo. The Age of Enlightenment can be said to have started with the publication of Francis Bacons Novum Organum, the new tool 1. Bacon advocates the project of effecting all things possible, by which he meant the achievement of mastery over nature in order to improve the condition of human beings. The heritage from the Renaissance combines with the influences of Isaac Newton, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Immanuel Kant, Marquis de Condorcet, and others to form the basis for rational humanism, which emphasizes science and critical reasoning rather than revelation and religious authority as ways of learning about the natural world and the destiny and nature of man and of providing a grounding for morality. Transhumanism traces its roots to this rational humanism. In the 1. 8th and 1. Benjamin Franklin and Voltaire speculated about extending human life span through medical science. Especially after Darwins theory of evolution, atheism or agnosticism came to be seen as increasingly attractive alternatives. However, the optimism of the late 1. When this view collided with reality, some people reacted by turning to irrationalism, concluding that since reason was not sufficient, it was worthless. This resulted in the anti technological, anti intellectual sentiments whose sequelae we can still witness today in some postmodernist writers, in the New Age movement, and among the neo Luddite wing of the anti globalization agitators. A significant stimulus in the formation of transhumanism was the essay Daedalus Science and the Future 1. British biochemist J. B. S. Haldane, in which he discusses how scientific and technological findings may come to affect society and improve the human condition. This essay set off a chain reaction of future oriented discussions, including The World, the Flesh and the Devil by J. D. Bernal 1. 92. Olaf Stapledon and the essay Icarus the Future of Science 1. Bertrand Russell, who took a more pessimistic view, arguing that without more kindliness in the world, technological power will mainly serve to increase mens ability to inflict harm on one another. Science fiction authors such as H. G. Wells and Olaf Stapledon also got many people thinking about the future evolution of the human race. One frequently cited work is Aldous Huxleys Brave New World 1. Huxleys novel warns of the dehumanizing potential of technology being used to arrest growth and to diminish the scope of human nature rather than enhance it. The Second World War changed the direction of some of those currents that result in todays transhumanism. The eugenics movement, which had previously found advocates not only among racists on the extreme right but also among socialists and progressivist social democrats, was thoroughly discredited. The goal of creating a new and better world through a centrally imposed vision became taboo and pass and the horrors of the Stalinist Soviet Union again underscored the dangers of such an approach. Mindful of these historical lessons, transhumanists are often deeply suspicious of collectively orchestrated change, arguing instead for the right of individuals to redesign themselves and their own descendants. In the postwar era, optimistic futurists tended to direct their attention more toward technological progress, such as space travel, medicine, and computers. Science began to catch up with speculation. Transhumanist ideas during this period were discussed and analyzed chiefly in the literary genre of science fiction. Authors such as Arthur C. Clarke, Isaac Asimov, Robert Heinlein, Stanislaw Lem, and later Bruce Sterling, Greg Egan, and Vernor Vinge have explored various aspects of transhumanism in their writings and contributed to its proliferation. Robert Ettinger played an important role in giving transhumanism its modern form. The publication of his book The Prospect of Immortality in 1. Ettinger argued that since medical technology seems to be constantly progressing, and since chemical activity comes to a complete halt at low temperatures, it should be possible to freeze a person today and preserve the body until such a time when technology is advanced enough to repair the freezing damage and reverse the original cause of deanimation. The Return of Economic History Both historians and economists regularly note that economic history has almost completely disappeared from universities, whether in terms of teaching or publications. This undeniably founded and well documented observation applies to all countries. However, it stands in marked contrast with the recent public andor academic success of a certain number of books on economic history. These include works as different, in terms of methodology, analysis, and conclusions, as those by Niall Fergusson, Carmen Reinhart and Kenneth Rogoff, Kenneth Pomeranz, David Graeber, Daron Acemoglu and James Robinson, and, of course, Thomas Piketty or even Jared Diamond and his Collapse, which includes some analysis of economic history. More generally, references to economic history substantially fuelled political and economic debate during the financial crisis for an overview, see Barry Eichengreens latest book. Rom Super Mario Galaxy Nintendo Ds. Whether fortunate or unfortunate, these references have brought to the fore works that would usually have remained fairly marginal and generated little interest in broader public debate. They have also shown not least to academics themselves that the number of people in history and economics departments currently working on the history of the financial world on markets and economic crises, for example is extremely, perhaps even ridiculously, low. The different books that have recently garnered so much attention do not necessarily reflect current trends in economic history as a whole first, they are mainly macroeconomic and, second, they mainly focus on financial history, directly reflecting the most urgent economic problems of our time. Nonetheless, they offer a good starting point for examining the current state and position of economic history. Recent independent developments in both history and economics research seem to hold the promise of a renewal of economic history. In order to fulfil this promise, though, the two disciplines need to achieve deeper collaboration and, above all, a better mutual understanding of their respective methods and aims. While these developments have not necessarily been fully accomplished yet, at the very least they do testify to a need and a demand for what one might call a return to economic history. Finally, the current political situation also encourages renewed interest in this field. A long standing loss of interest. The reasons behind the loss of influence of economic history are well known. However, for a long time, it held pride of place in both disciplines. In the nineteenth century, economics had a strong place in history departments because it was an integral part of the national narrative. Later, economic history was pursued in very different ways by both Marxist history and the Annales School. The economic dimension to the historical dynamic was considered essential in the Marxist tradition, because it was primary in all social relations, and among Annales historians, because it was a key element for analysing long term changes technical, commercial, entrepreneurial, etc. Historians interest in economic history then waned due to a radical critique of the primary nature of economic relations and to greater focus on discourse and representations of the world, the market, etc. At the end of the 1. In short, cultural history and the history of representations progressively came to replace economic history paradoxically, just as the dissemination and progress of IT tools seemed to offer new measuring instruments and new possibilities for analysing economies of the past. For economists, their discipline was for long a necessarily historical science. For the German historical school of economics or American institutional economics, which reigned supreme at least until the interwar period, the role of economics was to study long term evolutions by focusing on their institutional features and by rejecting the idea of universal theories that were not historically grounded. In these and the other main trends of the time, notions of institutions and cycles were key and, until the 1. Annales School, as well as with economic sociology more broadly. Even among certain economists who moved away from institutionalist analysis, such as Milton Friedman, history still had a preponderant place without which economic theory made no sense. Marxist economics and the various trends that built out from it for example, the Regulation school in France also gave a preeminent role to history here again, they shared the aims of historians who also believed in the primary nature of economics in social and political relations. Among economists, economic history declined due to two main developments. First of all, history was ousted by formalist economics and its aim of modelling economic science on physics, often resulting in a denial of the historicity and contingency of behaviours, institutions, and theories. This is probably still the main bone of contention between economists and historians today especially concerning un contextualised premises about the behaviours of economic agents based on contemporary concerns. Second, the heightened role of economists in the administrative regulation of the economy first in economic planning and then, a few decades later and from the opposite perspective, in creating and regulating competitive markets or evaluating public policies emphasized the figure of the engineer economist and, by the same token, specialist technical expertise, at the expense of the older figure of the general economist whose legitimacy was grounded in historical and institutional knowledge of the economy. Economic history therefore lost some of its power and influence while still remaining active in economics departments, where it was represented, on the one hand, by descendants of institutional economics and, above all, on the other, by cliometrics a trend that appeared in the United States in the 1. This trend, which won Douglass North and Robert Fogel the Nobel Prize in 1. However, although this approach foregrounding quantitative methods and recourse to theory had become broadly dominant among economic historians working in economics departments and more widely in associations and international economic history journals, it nonetheless did not manage to prevent the decline of economic history in general. Its low representation and lack of notoriety among economists today cannot be denied. To give a very broad summary, deliberately setting aside the details, the last three decades have seen a dual shift on the one hand, there has been a general decline in economic history and, on the other, an increasing intellectual divide between the few economists and historians who continue to work in this area. Historians see economists as uncultivated, inveterate apostles of quantification, mathematical models often a deterrent for historians, and neoliberalism, while economists perceive historians as exalting culturalism and relativism, ascribing more reality to discourse than to action, and being incapable of giving general scope to their analysis. Historians consider that economists use statistics and conceive of the rationality of behaviour with as little critical distance as historians from a century ago.